Organisational cultures Essay

Introduction defining glossThe concept of finish has find progressively portentous in instruction during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced chase may be understood as an practice of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those lead and man- agement models which explore the structural and technical aspects of tames and colleges. The localise on the intangible world of determine and attitudes is a useful antagonistic to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a much reposed portrait of preceptal institutions. flori conclusion relates to the light aspects of organisations sort of wherefore their official elements. They focus on the appraise, beliefs and norms of soulfulnesss in the organi- sation and how these respective(prenominal) perceptions coalesce into oerlap meats. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals quite an than by dint of the formal structure of the plaqueBeliefs, set and ideology ar at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold rightful(a) judgments and value-preferences which work how they be feel and how they view the behaviour of separate members. These norms become dual-lane traditions which be communicated within the group and ar rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156).The exploitation importance of nicety arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more(prenominal) than(prenominal)(prenominal) in effect within, this informal do master(prenominal) of the determine and beliefs of instructors, livelihood module and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and ONeill (1994) both stress the increasing signifi assholece of cultural factors in lead and manage- ment. The latter charts the popance of cultural labels and suggests why they hold become more prevalentThe increase use of much(prenominal) cultural descriptors in the literary productions of educational precaution is signifi croupt because it reflects a need for education al organiza- tions to be able-bodied to articulate deeply held and sh bedvalues in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to sore, groping and potenti exclusivelyythreatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and remembering for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of class and certain presidencyal structures and relationships. In this smell egress the analysis and influence of organizational shade become prerequisite management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (ONeill, 1994, p.116)The shift towards self-management in m whatsoever countries reinforces the notion of shoals and colleges as eccentric entities with their let distinctive characteristics or cul- ture. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater miscellany and, in Eng- land, this is atomic number 53 of the Governments explicit aims. Cald come up and Spinks (1992) wall that there is a agri socialization of self- management. The essential comp atomic number 53nts of this refining be the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility.Societal cultureMost of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is besides the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of field or social culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that the field of educational presidentship has largely ignored the influence of social culture but their solve has contributed to an increasing advisedness of this concept.Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of stage setting and stress the need to annul de conditionualized paradigms (p.1) in inquirying and analysing educa- tional placements and institutionsThe field of educational leading and management has create on eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories Frequently, any a shrink ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is stage setting context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and farawaye. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2)Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of variant cultural contexts can quite transform the latters saliency while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that all theories and interpretations of practice must be grounded in the particular proposition co ntext ahead they can be regarded as useful.LEADING AND MANAGING pile IN EDUCATION48Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) claim assumption sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction amidst societal and organizational cultureSocietal cultures differ well-nighly at the level of fundamental values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of crabby symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and limitingd, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and neuter only gradually over longer while finiss. rail leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis)Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven dimensions of societal culture,each of which is evince as a continuum1 Power-distributed/power concentrated power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated.2 Group-oriented/self-oriented bulk in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more free-lance and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between stack are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs.3 Consideration/ onset in aggression cultures, operation is stressed, competi- tion dominates and differences are resolved through the utilisation of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation.4 Proactivism/fatalism this dimension reflects the proactive or we can qualifying things well-nigh here attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others a fatalistic place.5 Generative/replicative some cultur es face more predis start outd towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere.6 exceptional relationship/holistic relationship in circumscribed relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tip to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, back up and friendship, than to impartially applied rules.7 Male influence/female influence in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and headmaster life is perpetuated. In others, women receive come to play a fundamental role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6).This model can be applied to educational systems in divers(prenominal) countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education49ORG ANISATIONAL CULTURES Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system China might be regarded as the archetypal noble power-distance (power-concentrated) society (p.60). Chinese culture is group oriented. Collective benefits are seen as more important than individual needs (p.61). Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving antecedence to peoples relationships. The purpose of education is to purge every individual into a harmonious member of society (p.62). Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute much(prenominal)(prenominal) inequalities to the keep dominance of patriarchy.Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate textile for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. interchange features of organisational cultureOrganisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003)1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values shared out values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared perceptiveness, and shared sensemaking are all unl ike ways of describing culture These pat- terns of brain also provide a rear for making ones protest behaviour sen- sible and meaningful (Morgan, 1997, p.138).This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a akin corporate culture. Dissonance is more in all probability in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also last in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a balkanized culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groupsLEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, soci alize most oftentimes in the supplyroom. The creative activity of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on acquisition, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum.Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their witness dis- tinctive subculture and in-between managers, or middle level leaders as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to put to work this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture.2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, in conclusion leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schoolsAs staff talked, worked and relaxed unneurotic, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the unequalledness of each schools norms.These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff the way we do things around here. We present already noted, up to now, that there may be several(prenominal) subcul- tures based on the professional and individualized interests of different groups. These typically have congenital coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify se nior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individualsSMTs in our research developed a culture of teamwork A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and pinch with those outside who were excluded from the inner world of the team.3 Culture is typically verbalised through rituals and ceremonies which areused to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. domesticates, in particular, are profuse in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools they have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby hornswoggle values can be conveyed Sym- bols a re central to the process of constructing meaning. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2).School culture may be symbolized through three modes(a) conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims.(b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction.(c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176).Schein (1997, p.248) argues that rites and rituals are central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions.4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who sustain the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture extract and recognition of heroes occurs within th e cultural boundaries identified through the value reach The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases.This feature is evident in reciprocal ohm Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the sulphur African degraded bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing hero, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school.Developing a culture of learning in South AfricaAs we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predomin ant culture reflects the wider social structure of the order-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education.Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture Spirituality life is viewed as briskistic rather than mechanistic. Harmony tenderekind and nature live interdependently and in harmony.LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 drive rhythm, music and dance. Verve high levels of stimulation. Affect emotions and feelings. Communalism social connectedness and an consciousness of responsibilities to thegroup transcending individual privileges. Expressive individualism genuine personal expression. ad-lib tradition oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. Social time perspective time as social rather than material space (adapted fromNgcobo 2003, p.224).Ngcobo (2003) notes that t hese cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became especially significant as schools began to change their racial composition in receipt to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny accession to students on the basis of race. For- merly fair schools, with a predominantly European culture, began to drink learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two differentiate examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black).This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading(p) to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to the unafraid combinatory culture it promotes (Ngcobo 2003, p.230).The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the weapons of the black majority was for young- sters to strike and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be deficient from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the sectionalisation in the culture of learning continued unabated.This issue surfaced in Bush and Andersons (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that the school is line to instill in the minds of learners that education is their future to show the importance of education within and outside the school to provide a conducive educational environment to develop a culture of learning.53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURESThe absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to inflate in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africas integrated schools. It seems credibly that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in i ndividual schools. lead and cultureWe noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating load values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expect to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture a couple of(prenominal) heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the peak to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the sch ool less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making words, actions, artefacts and settings.Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are founders of their schools culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads razed the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expect to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent. Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture.Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture Do cument the schools history to be codified and passed on. Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines.LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 Review the schools rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. Exploit and develop ceremony. Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstreamactivity. This provides access to the informal communications network.One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff filling process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the relythat those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likel y to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so.Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to denounce between universalistic and particularistic approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders.Using cultural criteria to appoint n ew staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is extremely problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts (p.153). He point to multiple barri- ers to change including staff wanted top down change and not ownership weve always through with(p) it this way individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture staff blaming childrens home background for examination failure numerous genius clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4).This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, it is dangerous formanagers to move too dissolute on cultural change (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to mould culture but rejects the belief that something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers.55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURESHargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that most peoples beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to speedy change The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly faultfinding inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the sight of staff redundancies or school closure. The leader is very charismatic, commanding clamorous trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. The leader succeeds a very suffering principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60).These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, if no(prenominal) of these special conditions applies, assum e that cultural change will be rather slow.Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his leadership forces hierarchy, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadershipThe net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond togetherstudents, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance.Limitations of organisational cultureThe concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003)1 The notion of organisational culture may simply be the imposition of the leaders values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. dual-lane cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to a process of ideologicalcontrol and warns of the risk of exposure of manipulationIdeological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite man ipulative and totalistic in its influence. (pp.150-1)Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the dark underworld of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and ritualswere capable of being overrideed by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term resistance group to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture.2 The enactment of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the developing of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are rattling components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002 Briggs 2003).In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the foundation garment of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leaders own values.3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as beforeA symbol can represe nt something which is real in the sense that it acts as a surrogate for reality there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the legend that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166)Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual.When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best wecan however it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals.Conclusion people and cultureThe belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper - ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a one size fits all model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools.The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ownership of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change (Morgan 1997, p.150).The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as signi ficant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. Even the most concrete and rationalaspects of organization whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day (Morgan 1997, p.146).Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ownership of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation.An understanding of both societal and organisational culture also provides a sound basis for leading and managing people in education. In many countries, schools and colleges are becoming multicultural, and recognition of the rich diver- sity of the cultural backgrounds of students, parents and staff is an essential element in school management. Similarly, all educational organisations have certain dis- tinctive features and understanding and managing this cultural apparatus is vital if leadership is to be in tune with the prevailing norms and values. An appreciation of the relevance of both societal and organisational culture, and of the values, beliefs and rituals that underpin them, is an important element in the leadershipand management of schools and colleges.ReferencesAkinnusi, D. (1991), Personnel management in Africa, in Brewster, C. and Tyson, S. (eds), International Comparisons in Human Resource Management, London, Pitman.Badat, S. 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